Essential Anatomy And Physiology Physical Education Essay

Essential Anatomy And Physiology Physical Education Essay Homeostasis refers to the bodys ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even while continually subjected to external changes. Body temperature, blood volume and heart rate are just a few examples of the hundreds of conditions the body regulates to maintain homeostatic balance. This internal equilibrium is so important that virtually every disease or disorder in the body can be traced to a homeostatic imbalance. The maintenance of homeostasis includes: Control of the water balance of the blood Control of blood sugar level Control of body temperature Control of blood urea level Each of the internal factors are maintained by a separate mechanism that is specific for that factor. However, all the mechanisms for homeostasis share common features: A specific sensor is able to detect the value of the factor being monitored Any deviation from the desired value (norm)is corrected so that the norm is more or less maintained The corrective mechanism involves negative feedback. For the body cells to survive and function properly, the composition and temperature of the fluids around the cells (intestinal fluid) must remain much the same. Corrective mechanism Rise above norm Norm Norm Corrective mechanism Fall below norm Various organ systems of the body act to maintain homeostasis through a combination of hormonal and nervous mechanisms. In everyday life, the body must regulate respiratory gases, protect itself against agents of disease (pathogens), maintain fluid and salt balance regulate energy and nutrient supply, and maintain a constant body temperature. All these must be coordinated and appropriate responses made to incoming stimuli. In addition, the body must be able to repair itself when injured and be capable of reproducing (leaving offspring). The human body must maintain homeostasis in order to function properly and aid in growth and development, disruptions to homeostatic functions can have triggered effects on the growth and development. Normal blood temperatureRegulation of body temperature by Homeostasis: Cold receptors in skin Warm receptors in skin Decrease increase Hypothalamus Heat gain Heat loss Vasodilation of superficial arterioles onset of sweating hair lowered as hair erector muscles relax and decreased metabolic rate. Vasoconstriction of superficial arterioles onset of shivering hair raised by contraction of hair erector muscles and increased metabolic rate. Feedback Feedback Negative feedback in the control of body temperature: Skin vasodilation sweating lowering hairs Heat loss centre in the hypothalamus Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus Rise in blood temp Nerve impulse Nerve Impulse normal blood temp Blood at original temperature turns off corrective mechanisms Positive feedback occurs when the feedback causes the corrective measures to remain turned on, this causes the system to deviate more from the norm. One example is of neurones when a stimulus causes a small influx of sodium ions. Positive feedback occurs when there is a breakdown of control systems. In Certain diseases like typhoid fever, breakdown of temperature regulation resulting in a rise in body temperature leading to hypothermia, and vice versa if the body gets too cold (hypothermia). The human body systems, all play a part in maintaining homeostasis; they all have their own specific roles and parts. The human body systems work together in order to function effectively, no system would be able to work effectively on its own. Organ system Homeostatic function Cardiovascular Transports oxygen, nutrients and hormones secreted by the endocrine glands to tissue cells and transports wastes away from cells; defends against disease; helps control temperature, fluid, and pH balance. digestive Absorbs soluble nutrients after ingesting food and digesting it, eliminates nondigestible remains.   Supplies blood with nutrients and water for tissue cells. respiratory Captures oxygen and exchanges gasses at lungs and tissues, maintains breathing, helps control pH balance.   Supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells and rids blood of carbon dioxide.   Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood. Skeletal Protects the body and provides support for locomotion and movement, stores minerals, produces blood cells. endocrine Coordinates and integrates the activities of other systems by secreting hormones, responding to stress, regulating fluid, pH balance and metabolism.   Works more slowly, with longer-lasting effects than the nervous system. muscular Produces body and internal movement, maintains posture, and produces heat that maintains body temperature.   Protects and supports internal organs. urinary Removes nitrogenous and other metabolic wastes from the bloodstream by excretion, helps control fluid balance, as well as the water-salt, and acid-base balance of the blood. nervous Receives sensory input, integrates and stores input, directs the body, and helps coordinate the activities of all the other organ systems.   It responds quickly to internal and external stimuli. The circulatory system is built up the heart, blood and blood vessels, which services all the cells in the body. Wastes are taken away and exchanged with oxygen and food nutrients. All cells in the body require oxygen and nutrients and they need theyre wastes removed. These are the main roles of the circulatory system. The heart, blood and blood vessels work together to service the cells of the body. Using the network of arteries, veins and capillaries, blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs (for exhalation) and picks up oxygen. From the small intestine, the blood gathers food nutrients and delivers them to every cell. Components of the cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels Blood Heart is a muscular pumping organ located in the medial to the lungs. The top of the heart, known as the hearts base, connects to the great blood vessels of the body; the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins. Blood vessels are the highways that allow blood flow quickly and efficiently from the heart to regions of the body. Three types of blood vessels, arteries and arterioles, capillaries, and veins and venules. Blood as a connective tissue, transports many substances through the body and helps maintain homeostasis of nutrients, wastes, and gases. Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma. All of the organ systems in the body contribute to homeostasis, but the cardiovascular system, the heart and blood vessels is especially important. Without the cardiovascular system none of the other systems can function. The muscular system requires large amounts of oxygen from the cardiovascular system. Muscles cramp and freeze up when they do not get adequate oxygen supply. If in the case the cardiovascular system cannot pump enough oxygen rich blood to the muscles the body is unable to move. The cardiovascular system also helps in maintaining blood volume; it works in conjunction with the kidneys to maintain blood volume and composition. The cardiovascular system provides the blood pressure that the kidneys use to filter waste out of the body. The cardiovascular system and the skin help maintain homeostasis by regulating body temperature. When the body over heats, the blood vessels that serve the skin dilate. The cardiovascular system rushes warm blood to the superficial capillar ies of the skin. Heat from the blood radiates off of the skins surface, cooling the body. When body temperature drops too low, skin capillaries constrict. This prevents warm blood from reaching the surface of the skin. The heart pumps extra blood to the deeper vital organs. Nasal passage Air entering from the nostrils is led to the nasal passages. The nasal cavity that is located behind the nose comprises the nasal passages that form an important part of the respiratory system in human beings. The nasal cavity is responsible for conditioning the air that is received by the nose. The process of conditioning involves warming or cooling the air received by the nose, removing dust particles from it and also moistening it, before it enters the pharynx Pharynx It is located behind the nasal cavity and above the larynx. It is also a part of the digestive system of the human body. Food as well as air passes through the pharynx Larynx Consists of two pairs of membranes. Air causes the vocal cords to vibrate, thus producing sound. The larynx is situated in the neck of mammals and plays a vital role in the protection of the trachea. Trachea Airway through which respiratory air travels bronchi The trachea divided into two main bronchi. The bronchi extend into the lungs spreading in a tree-like manner as bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes subdivide and with each subdivision, their walls get thinner. This dividing of the bronchi into thin-walled tubes results in the formation of bronchioles. The bronchioles terminate in small air chambers, each of which contains cavities known as alveoli. Alveoli have thin walls, which form the respiratory surface. The exchange of gases between the blood and the air takes place through these walls. lungs Lungs form the most vital component of the human respiratory system. They are located on the two sides of the heart. They are responsible for transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into blood and releasing carbon dioxide from blood to the atmosphere. The respiratory system is made up of the nasal passage, the pharynx, larynx, the trachea, bronchi and lungs. It is responsible for the process of respiration that is vital to the survival of living beings. Respiration is the process of obtaining and using oxygen, while eliminating carbon dioxide. Breathing occurs when air passes into and out of the lungs; its an involuntary process but can be controlled consciously. Breathing involves the movement of air in and out of the lungs in generated by differences in pressure inside and outside the body. The most important muscle used in breathing is the diaphragm, a muscular sheet between the base and the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is assisted by the internal and external intercostal (which lie between the ribs) and by the neck and abdominal muscles. A person normally breathes in and out about 500ml (1pt) of air 12-17 times a minute. Breathing involves inhalation followed by exhalation, during inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract to expand the chest cavity. During forceful inhalation the neck muscles also contract. However during exhalation the chest cavity decreases, and the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. In order to function, the body cells need oxygen. The respiratory system, w hich consists of air passages, pulmonary vessels, and the lungs, as well as breathing muscles, supplies fresh oxygen to the blood for distribution to the rest of the body tissues. In addition, respiration removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of body processes. Alveoli which are tiny air sacs of the lungs, they are elastic, thin-walled structures that are supplied with air by respiratory bronchioles. Tiny blood capillaries surrounding the alveolar walls allow oxygen to be carried into the bloodstream. In exchange, carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into the alveoli, from where it is exhaled. Gas exchange takes place in the lungs, where carbon dioxide from the blood passes into the alveoli through the respiratory membrane, a thin barrier that has several layers. Oxygen crosses the membrane in the opposite direction, from the alveoli to the blood capillaries. Homeostasis is hence maintained by the respiratory system in two of the following ways: gas exchange and regulation of blood pH. Gas exchange is performed by the lungs by eliminating carbon dioxide, a waste product given off by cellular respiration. As carbon dioxide exits the body, oxygen needed for cellular respiration enters the body through the lungs. ATP, produced by cellular respiration, provides the energy for the body to perform many functions, including nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Lack of oxygen affects brain function, sense of judgment, and a host of other problems. The bodys complex anatomical systems work closely together to support movement, blood circulation, digestion and other basic requirements of life. The muscular system consists of three types of muscle, each with a separate function. The functions of the muscular and skeletal systems are so intricately interconnected that they are often referred to by the single term, the musculoskeletal system. This system consists of bones, joints, tendons, ligaments, skeletal muscles, nerves, cartilage and the voluntary or striated muscles. They work together to protect the brain and internal organs, posture, blood cell formation, and fat storage. Smooth muscles make up important internal organs, like the bladder, arteries and veins. They interact with the digestive system, reproductive system and circulatory system. Smooth muscles control and regulate blood pressure and blood flow. The cardiac muscle is the heart itself, an involuntary muscle that interacts with the circulatory system to supply ox ygen to all the tissues of the body. Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control, meaning we can choose to move them. Movement of smooth muscles and the cardiac muscle is involuntary, under control of the autonomic nervous system. The muscular system also plays an essential role in homeostasis, which is the regulation of internal body temperature. Homeostasis is maintained by the hormones that increase osteoblast activity to build bone, called calcitonin which is released by the thyroid gland, and the release of parathyroid hormone which increases osteoclast activity and is released by the parathyroid glands. As long as both of these function normally, the bone mass stays the same, this is a homeostatic state of bone. If it goes out of balance you will either build too much bone or loose bone mass and develop osteoporosis. The nervous system is the bodys decision and communication centre.  The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of a persons daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping people to memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from the brain to the face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord, and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the environment; send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second. The CNS controls homeostasis as well as depends on it. The CNS controls homeostasis by us ing its receptors to sense changes in the bodys internal environment. E.g., certain receptors in the aorta monitor carbon dioxide and  oxygen  concentration in the blood. This information is relayed to the brain (most functions are controlled by the hypothalamus), and again through the CNS, the effector organs are signalled. Eg To increase or decrease the rate of breathing in response to carbon dioxide/oxygen concentration. The CNS comprises of nerve cells that depend on a very stable internal environment, especially in terms of sodium and potassium concentrations, without which it cannot function properly. Book References Author date title origin Publisher Oxford college CC unit 2 material Saffery and Stewart (eds) 2008, Maintaining the whole: human biology and health book3, The open university Web References Author Title of article or page online Web address Date accessed Kevin Berman, MD, PhD, Atlanta Center for Dermatologic Disease, Atlanta, GA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc., Editorial Team: David Zieve, MD, MHA, David R. Eltz, Stephanie Slon, and Nissi Wang. Circulatory system Image http://www.upmc.com/health-library/pages/adam.aspx?gencontentid=8747productid=1projectid=2returnurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upmc.com%2Fhealth-library%2Fpages%2Fadam.aspx%3Fgencontentid%3D003869%26productid%3D1%26projectid%3D1 14/02/13 Respiratory system image http://www.medical-exam-essentials.com/respiratory-system-diagram.html 20/02/13 Central nervous system image http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.umm.edu/graphics/images/en/19588.jpgimgrefurl=http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/19588.htmh=320w=400sz=27tbnid=uaHe_Ze8E0PioM:tbnh=90tbnw=113prev=/search%3Fq%3Dcentral%2Bnervous%2Bsystem%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Duzoom=1q=central+nervous+systemusg=__SOXGCJUKqZxnuqbAYKyXdeWzMjI=docid=0is3P-6lanlgyMhl=ensa=Xei=MOEkUdHjB-Sp0AX41YGgDwsqi=2ved=0CE8Q9QEwAwdur=588 20/02/13 Journal References Author Title of article Name of journal Volume and issue Year

Operations inventory management: Defining replenishment from requirements philosophy Essay

The requirements philosophy of inventory management and control aims to balance short term lower inventory and higher customer service. The materials requirements planner first determines the total amount of parts needed to produce a particular item on the production schedule. That is taking the output of a certain production schedule to be able to determine the needed items and raw materials, input, required to complete it. Current stock of parts are then located at the inventory database. The on-hand inventory is then subtracted from required quantity. The task is to break down the production schedule into all required parts which shall be used to schedule purchasing and manufacturing. (Burton & Bragg 2000). Requirements philosophy also recognizes the existence of subassemblies which is usually produced in advance or in parallel run prior to the manufacture of the final product or assembly. A schedule of the quantity and completion of the assemblies must be prepared to determine the exact date on which any part shall be purchased. Requirements planning involved timing. It extracts from the item master file the number of days or lead time required for a supplier to deliver a certain item from date of purchased. The cycle time or production time of each assembly must be determined to be able to achieved accuracy in production scheduling and purchase. Requirement philosophy is closely tied to the timing of transactions. Any change in the production schedule has a definite impact to major transaction changes that will call for urgent messages for urgent orders. (p. 150). Inventory replenishment refers to the need to calculate cost structures by using information about demand for better understanding of network topologies. It aims to understand service level requirements and its direct impact on inventory investment and allocation based on their relative supply chain. The inventory planner needs the information from the materials requirements planner to be able to manage direction and control of the flow of operations for the purpose of getting the perfect inventory level for a specific item for a specific period. Allowances on replenishment quantities at reorder point were then made for replenishment lead time and calculated safety stock to accommodate possible market demand fluctuations. This serves to be critical for incorrect information could mean probable stock out. Reorder actions served to preserve the integrity of the management inventory serviceability. Aspects of item cost, item physical and chemical characteristics, continuity of demand, shipping characteristics, and storage and handling requirements of the items were all taken into considerations. The determination of the reorder level then is guided by accurate computation of production cycle or working stock cycle which will temporarily respond to the average level of customer demand occurring during the period. Furthermore, a safety or buffer stock are then set on top of the level of requirements acting as allowances or additional inventory added to cycle stock in the event of variance in the normal distribution of demand. (Ross 1996). To differentiate, requirements philosophy supplies the specific requirements needed to support and complete a production schedule while replenishment philosophy is being computed on top of the required level of inventory taking into consideration the external factors of cost, lead time, shipping and storage requirements of the item in particular marked by determining a reorder level specification for each item or raw materials on record with high consideration on the factors of demand and supply availability.

The First Novel Nausea By Jean Paul Sartre - 1939 Words

Metamorphosis In the year 1938, a French philosopher and writer, Jean Paul-Sartre, published his first novel Nausea. The main protagonist, Antoine Roquentin lives a lonely life of a classic ‘superfluous man’, term used in many Russian novels, and starts to write a diary to help him understand his sudden attacks of nausea. In the novel Nausea, Roquentin questions himself: â€Å"What if something were to happen? What if something suddenly started throbbing? Then they would notice it was there and they d think their hearts were going to burst. Then what good would their dykes, bulwarks, power houses, furnaces and pile drivers be to them? It can happen any time, perhaps right now: [...] And someone else might feel something scratching in his mouth. He goes to the mirror, opens his mouth: and his tongue is an enormous, live centipede, rubbing its legs together and scraping his palate. 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The Many Sides of Dr. Melvin R. McGinnis - 1475 Words

Raymond Carvers short story â€Å"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love† leaves the reader feeling as if they have sat down at the table with a bottle of Gin and experienced first hand the effects of alcoholism and depression. In the original version of this story the â€Å"Beginners† Carver carefully crafts the many sides of an alcoholic personality developing strong knowable characters. The fundamental personalities are left fairly intact from the original version. It should be noted that the feelings that the reader are left with are due at least partially to the severe editing of the â€Å"Beginners† done by his editor and friend Gordon Lish. With this collaboration Carvers personal struggles still shine through but his intent of hope and†¦show more content†¦When Laura does speak or interact with the others she is often trying to lighten an anxiety in the room. Laura listens to to the story of Terri and Ed in a non judgmental and fascinated way and when the story leaves everyone feeling anxious she says â€Å"Well, Nick and I know what love is, for us I mean.† The way the others treat her shows off her personality well. Mel treats her like a glimmer of hope in a dark place. â€Å"I’d fall in love with you. I’d carry you off, honey.† Terri playfully mocks her type of love as honeymoon love that won’t last. Everyone in the room but Laura seems jaded to some extent. At the end of the story Laura becomes passive and redirects from the anxious feeling in the room â€Å"I don’t think I have ever felt so hungry in my life. Is there something to nibble on?† Terri is well described by Nick as bone thin, pretty face, dark eyes and long brown hair. She liked turquoise necklaces, long pendant earrings. She plays a very dominate character role in the story and has a lot of interaction with Me. INTERVIEWER: In an article you did for The New York Times Book Review you mentioned a story â€Å"too tedious to talk about here†Ã¢â‚¬â€about why you choose to write short stories over novels. Do you want to go into that story now? Carver: ...It was depressing, and I felt spiritually obliterated. Alcohol became a problem. I more or less gave up, threw in the towel, and took to full-time drinking as a